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Acupuncture Regulation of Glial Cells and Neuroinflammation in the CNS

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Glial Cells, Neuroinflammation & Acupuncture

Acupuncture Regulation of Glial Cells and Neuroinflammation in the CNS

Summary based on: Anti-inflammatory and Immunoregulatory Effects of Acupuncture (PMC8710088)

Glial cells—astrocytes, microglia, and oligodendrocytes—are the most abundant cells in the central nervous system (CNS). They interact closely with neurons, immune cells, and blood vessels, and form the first line of defense when the brain or spinal cord is exposed to injury or stress.

Among them, microglia are key innate immune cells derived from the monocyte/macrophage lineage. In pathological states, microglia rapidly respond to danger signals and can drive neuroinflammation by sending inflammatory signals to astrocytes and other cells if the response is not properly controlled.

This article summarizes how acupuncture modulates glial cells—especially microglia— across different neurological models, helping to protect the CNS from inflammatory damage.

1. PAMPs, DAMPs, and HMGB1 in Acute CNS Injury

In CNS injury, inflammatory responses are driven by:

  • PAMPs (pathogen-associated molecular patterns)
  • DAMPs (damage-associated molecular patterns)

One key DAMP is high mobility group box-1 (HMGB1), a major mediator of neuroinflammation in the CNS.

In spinal cord injury models, electroacupuncture (EA) at GV9 (Zhiyang), GV6 (Jizhong), GV2 (Yaoshu), and GV1 (Changqiang):

  • Reduces HMGB1, TNF-α, IL-1β levels.
  • Helps restore spinal cord structure and motor function.
  • Alleviates secondary inflammatory injury after the initial trauma.

In a model of chronic restraint stress (CRS)-induced depression-like behavior, manual acupuncture (MA) at GV20 (Baihui) and PC6 (Neiguan):

  • Lowers NO, PGE2, iNOS, COX-2, and NF-κB expression in the hippocampus and prefrontal cortex.
  • Alleviates depression-like behaviors linked to chronic stress and neuroinflammation.

After traumatic brain injury (TBI), EA at ST36 (Zusanli) and GV14 (Dazhui) suppresses the TLR4 signaling pathway and downstream pro-inflammatory proteins (TLR4, MyD88, TRAF6, TRAM, TRIF) in brain tissue, thereby reducing inflammatory cascades and improving neurological deficits.

In intracerebral hemorrhage, EA at GB20 (Fengchi) and TE17 (Yifeng) reduces up-regulation of RIPK1, p-RIPK3, p-MLKL, partially blocks the interaction between RIPK1 and RIPK3, and lowers TNF-α, IL-6, IL-8, which eases traumatic neuritis and slows perihematoma brain edema.

In paclitaxel-induced neuropathic pain, EA at ST36 and BL60 (Kunlun) alleviates central inflammation by inhibiting spinal astrocyte and microglial activation and reducing overexpression of TLR4, MyD88, and TRPV1 in the dorsal root ganglion (DRG).

In ischemic stroke models, MA at GV20 + GV14 or LI11 (Quchi) + ST36 improves degeneration and necrosis of microglia in cortical tissue, inhibits M1-type polarization, reduces mononuclear phagocyte infiltration into the ischemic core and penumbra, and down-regulates TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6, thereby protecting neurons in the ischemic penumbra.

2. Chemokines, CXCL12/CXCR4, and Central Sensitization

Chemokines and their receptors are crucial for regulating glial-driven inflammation and central sensitization.

EA at GV20, LI4 (Hegu), and LR3 (Taichong) up-regulates cylindromatosis (CYLD) in cortical neurons surrounding ischemic injury, inhibits the interaction between receptor-interacting protein 1 (RIP1) and IKKγ, suppresses the NF-κB pathway, and reduces TNF-α, IL-1β, CX3CL1, thereby limiting excessive microglial activation.

In chronic post-ischemic pain models, EA at ST36 and BL60 inhibits overexpression of the CXCL12/CXCR4 chemokine system and downstream ERK signaling in the spinal dorsal horn, reducing neuronal and glial hyperactivity and exerting a strong anti-hypersensitivity effect.

3. MicroRNAs, Omics, and Fine Control of Microglial Inflammation

MicroRNAs play a pivotal role in activating NF-κB signaling in microglia, and acupuncture can modulate these molecules to reduce neuroinflammation.

In vascular dementia (VD) induced by chronic cerebral hypoperfusion, MA at GV20 and ST36 suppresses the miR-93–TLR4/MyD88/NF-κB pathway, reduces TNF-α and IL-6 in the hippocampus and plasma, and improves memory, attention, and executive function.

In ischemic models, EA at ST36 and LI11 up-regulates miR-9, inhibits NF-κB activation, and reduces TNF-α and IL-1β in the peri-infarct cortex.

In models of major depressive disorder (MDD), genomic analysis of MA at GV20 and GV29 (Yintang) indicates that its multi-target antidepressant effect is related to amino acid metabolism and inflammatory pathways, with TLR and NF-κB signaling being major mechanisms.

Acupuncture also affects C-type lectin receptor (CLR) signaling. MA at GV20 via GB7 (Qubin) reduces expression of Mincle/Syk/CARD9 pathway proteins and IL-1β after intracerebral hemorrhage, contributing to improved neurological outcomes.

4. Purinergic Receptors, Migraine, and P2X/P2Y Signaling

After local ischemia or mechanical injury, dead neurons and oligodendrocytes release high concentrations of ATP, which are rapidly hydrolyzed and act as chemotactic signals to attract and activate nearby microglia via P2Y12R and P2X4R.

MA at GB20 (Fengchi) and GB34 (Yanglingquan) modulates P2Y12R, inhibits microglial activation, suppresses COX-2-dependent PGE2 synthesis in the trigeminal ganglion via the RhoA/ROCK pathway, and reduces CGRP, BDNF, COX-2, IL-1β, IL-6, TNF-α levels in jugular vein serum. This alleviates plasma protein extravasation and relieves migraine triggered by dural neurogenic aseptic inflammation.

After middle cerebral artery occlusion/reperfusion (MCAO/R), EA at GV20 and GV24 (Shenting) inhibits microglial activation, decreases IL-1β, P2X7R, P2Y1R, and increases IL-10 in the hippocampus and prefrontal cortex, thereby blocking P2 receptor-mediated microglial inflammation.

5. Glial Cells in Neurodegenerative Diseases: AD, PD, VD, and Epilepsy

Chronic activation of glial cells contributes to multiple progressive neurodegenerative diseases.

In Alzheimer’s disease (AD), amyloid-β (Aβ) exerts direct toxicity on neurons and activates microglia, which release inflammatory mediators that further impair neuronal and cognitive function. EA at GV20, BL23 (Shenshu), or KI3 (Taixi) inhibits cortical glial activation, down-regulates inflammatory factors, reduces Aβ deposition, repairs neuronal damage, and improves learning and memory.

Aβ also activates the NLRP3 inflammasome and induces IL-1β overexpression, aggravating neuroinflammation. EA at GV20, GV26 (Shuigou), GV29 inhibits NLRP3, ASC, and caspase-1 activation and reduces IL-1β levels in the hippocampus, exerting a strong anti-inflammatory effect.

In Parkinson’s disease (PD), early intracellular and extracellular aggregation of α-synuclein triggers glial activation, promotes the release of toxic NO and peroxides, and damages dopaminergic fibers and neurons in the striatum (ST) and substantia nigra (SN). EA at CV12 (Zhongwan), RN7 (Yinjiao), ST36, and LR3 (Taichong) suppresses glial activation, down-regulates TNF-α, IL-1β, COX-2 in SN and ST, rescues dopamine neurons on the verge of apoptosis, improves motor and spatial memory function, and alleviates anxiety and depression.

In vascular dementia (VD), MA at ST36 and GV20 down-regulates TXNIP, inhibits its interaction with NLRP3, reduces IL-1 and ROS, and improves cognitive impairment and cerebral edema.

In the pentylenetetrazole (PTZ)-induced epilepsy model, MA at GV20 reduces ROS production, increases SOD and catalase (CAT) activity, inhibits TNF-α, suppresses abnormal discharge of damaged neurons, and reduces seizure severity.

6. Oxidative Stress, NMDAR, TRPV1, and microRNAs in Brain Injury

Brain oxidative stress, driven by an imbalance between ROS/RNS production and detoxification, plays a key role in neuroinflammation.

MA at GV15 (Yamen), GV16 (Fengfu), GV20, GV26, and LI4 enhances brain antioxidant defenses, reduces M1 microglial expression, inhibits the RhoA/ROCK2 pathway and pro-inflammatory TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6, decreases DNA damage in brain tissue near TBI lesions, and improves neurological function.

Excess glutamate, NMDAR over-activation, and energy failure also contribute to excitotoxic injury. EA at GV29 and GV20 reduces IL-1β, IL-6, TNF-α in serum and hippocampus, restores the balance of NMDAR subtypes, and exerts antidepressant effects.

In ischemic stroke, EA pretreatment at GV20, BL23, and SP6 (Sanyinjiao) significantly inhibits TRPV1 expression, reduces MDA, TNF-α, IL-1β, and increases GSH and SOD, producing potent neuroprotection.

MA at GV20 and GB7 (Qubin) reduces miR-23a-3p in brain tissue and inhibits IL-6, IL-1β, TNF-α, ROS, MDA, and GPX4 activation, thereby attenuating neuronal death, neuroinflammation, and ferroptosis after intracerebral hemorrhage.

7. The Endocannabinoid System and CB1R in Migraine

The endocannabinoid system, composed of endocannabinoids and the receptors CB1 and CB2, regulates the body’s response to pain and inflammatory triggers. CB1 receptor (CB1R) signaling plays anti-injury, anti-hypersensitive, and anti-inflammatory roles.

EA pretreatment at GB20 and TE5 (Waiguan) up-regulates CB1R expression and inhibits trigeminal ganglion electrical stimulation–induced migraine. It reduces IL-1β, COX-2, PGE2, and CGRP, alleviates plasma protein extravasation, and relieves dural neurogenic aseptic inflammation.

8. Summary: Glial Cells, Microglia, and Neuroprotection with Acupuncture

Taken together, the evidence shows that acupuncture can:

  • Promote the transformation of M1 microglia to M2 microglia.
  • Inhibit pro-inflammatory pathways such as TLR4/MyD88, NF-κB, MAPK, NLRP3, RIPK1/RIPK3, P2X/P2Y, and Mincle/Syk.
  • Reduce oxidative stress by down-regulating TXNIP–NLRP3, ROS/RNS, and MDA.
  • Regulate multiple microRNAs involved in microglial activation and neuroinflammation.
  • Activate the endogenous cannabinoid system (CB1R), reducing tissue injury and pain hypersensitivity.

Acupoints are mainly selected from the Yangming meridians of hand and foot and the Ren and Du meridians. Common core points include ST36, LI4, LI11, GV20. Across models, multi-acupoint stimulation generally shows better effects than single points: for example, in migraine models, the combination GB20 + GB34 regulates serum neuroinflammatory markers more effectively than GB20 alone.


Reference
Anti-inflammatory and immunoregulatory effects of acupuncture. Available at: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8710088/

膠質細胞與神經發炎

針灸調節膠質細胞與神經發炎:中樞神經保護機制

內容摘自文獻: Anti-inflammatory and Immunoregulatory Effects of Acupuncture(PMC8710088)

在中樞神經系統(CNS)中,膠質細胞(glial cells)——包括星狀膠質 細胞、微膠細胞與寡樹突膠質細胞——是數量最多的一群細胞。它們與神經元、免疫 細胞與血管密切互動,是大腦與脊髓面對刺激與損傷時的第一道防線

其中,微膠細胞(microglia)屬於單核球/巨噬細胞譜系,是 CNS 中最活躍的 先天免疫細胞。病理狀態下,微膠細胞會率先啟動免疫反應,並向星狀膠細胞等發出 發炎訊號,若調控失衡,易導致持續性的神經發炎(neuroinflammation)

本文整理該文獻中,針灸如何透過調節膠質細胞——尤其是微膠細胞——來保護中樞 神經系統、減少神經發炎的研究重點。

一、PAMPs、DAMPs 與 HMGB1:急性中樞損傷的發炎觸發點

中樞神經損傷後的發炎反應,主要由兩大類分子驅動:

  • PAMPs:病原關聯分子模式
  • DAMPs:損傷關聯分子模式

其中 HMGB1 是重要的 DAMP,被視為神經發炎的關鍵媒介。

脊髓損傷大鼠模型中,電針 至陽(GV9)、脊中(GV6)、腰俞(GV2)、長強(GV1) 可:

  • 降低 HMGB1、TNF-α、IL-1β 水平。
  • 改善脊髓結構與運動功能。
  • 減少脊髓損傷後的繼發性發炎傷害。

慢性束縛壓力(CRS)誘發的憂鬱樣行為模型中,針刺 百會(GV20)、內關(PC6) 能:

  • 降低海馬與前額葉皮層中的 NO、PGE2、iNOS、COX-2、NF-κB
  • 緩解與慢性壓力相關的憂鬱樣行為。

創傷性腦損傷(TBI)模型中,電針 足三里(ST36)、大椎(GV14) 抑制腦組織內 TLR4 訊號及其下游 TLR4、MyD88、TRAF6、TRAM、TRIF,減少發炎級聯反應, 改善神經功能缺損。

腦出血模型中,電針 風池(GB20)、翳風(TE17) 減少 RIPK1、p-RIPK3、p-MLKL 上調,部分阻斷 RIPK1 與 RIPK3 交互作用,降低 TNF-α、IL-6、IL-8,減輕 創傷性神經炎並延緩血腫周邊腦水腫形成。

紫杉醇誘發的神經病理性疼痛模型中,電針 足三里(ST36)、崑崙(BL60) 抑制脊髓內星狀膠細胞與微膠細胞活化,降低 TLR4、MyD88、TRPV1 過度表現,減輕中樞發炎性疼痛。

缺血性腦中風模型中,針刺組合如 百會+大椎(GV20+GV14)曲池+足三里(LI11+ST36) 能改善皮質微膠細胞變性壞死,抑制其向 M1 促炎型轉化,減少單核吞噬細胞浸潤,下調 TNF-α、IL-1β、IL-6, 保護缺血半暗帶神經元,減少凋亡與壞死。

二、趨化因子、CXCL12/CXCR4 與中樞敏化

趨化因子與其受體,在膠質細胞參與的發炎與疼痛敏化中扮演關鍵角色。

電針 百會(GV20)、合谷(LI4)、太衝(LR3) 可上調皮質神經元中的 CYLD 表現,破壞 RIP1–IKKγ 互作,抑制 NF-κB 訊號,並降低損傷周邊皮質中的 TNF-α、IL-1β、CX3CL1, 避免微膠細胞過度活化。

慢性缺血後疼痛模型中,電針 足三里(ST36)、崑崙(BL60) 抑制脊髓背角中 CXCL12/CXCR4 趨化因子信號及下游 ERK 路徑, 降低神經元與膠質細胞興奮度,發揮強烈的抗痛覺過敏作用。

三、microRNA 與 Omics:微調微膠細胞的發炎反應

多種 microRNA(miRNA)參與微膠細胞 NF-κB 發炎路徑的啟動,針灸可透過 調控 miRNA 來抑制神經發炎。

血管性失智(VD)模型中,針刺 百會(GV20)、足三里(ST36) 抑制 miR-93–TLR4/MyD88/NF-κB 訊號軸,降低海馬與血漿中的 TNF-α、IL-6,減輕發炎,同時改善記憶、注意力與執行功能。

在缺血模型中,電針 足三里(ST36)、曲池(LI11) 上調 miR-9,抑制 NF-κB 活化,降低梗塞周邊皮質中的 TNF-α、IL-1β

重度憂鬱症(MDD)模型中,Omics 分析顯示,針刺 百會(GV20)、印堂(GV29) 調節多個與胺基酸代謝與發炎相關的基因,當中 TLRNF-κB 訊號是其抗憂鬱作用的重要通路。

針灸亦影響 C 類凝集素受體(CLRs)。例如針刺 百會(GV20)經曲鬢(GB7) 可下調腦組織中 Mincle/Syk/CARD9 路徑蛋白與 IL-1β,有助於改善腦出血後的 神經功能。

四、嘌呤受體、P2X/P2Y 訊號與偏頭痛

局部缺血或機械損傷後,死亡的神經元與寡樹突膠質細胞會釋放高濃度 ATP,並 迅速水解,經由 P2Y12RP2X4R 吸引與活化附近微膠細胞。

針刺 風池(GB20)、陽陵泉(GB34) 可影響 P2Y12RRhoA/ROCK 路徑,抑制三叉神經節中 COX-2 依賴的 PGE2 合成,下調 CGRP、BDNF、COX-2、IL-1β、IL-6、TNF-α 等,減少血漿蛋白外滲, 緩解硬腦膜神經源性無菌性發炎所致的偏頭痛。

大腦中動脈阻塞/再灌流(MCAO/R)模型中,電針 百會(GV20)、神庭(GV24) 抑制微膠細胞活化,降低海馬與前額葉中的 IL-1β、P2X7R、P2Y1R,並上調 IL-10,阻斷 P2 受體介導的 微膠細胞發炎反應。

五、膠質細胞與神經退行性疾病:AD、PD、VD、癲癇

慢性膠質細胞活化是多種神經退行性疾病的重要病理基礎。

阿茲海默症(AD)中,Aβ 直接對神經元產生毒性,並活化微膠細胞,釋放發炎 介質,進一步加重神經與認知功能損傷。電針 百會(GV20)、腎俞(BL23)、 太溪(KI3) 可抑制皮質膠質細胞活化,下調發炎因子,減少 Aβ 沉積,修復神經元 損傷,改善學習與記憶。

Aβ 也會誘發 NLRP3 發炎小體活化與 IL-1β 過度表現,加劇神經發炎。電針 百會(GV20)、水溝(GV26)、印堂(GV29) 可抑制 NLRP3、ASC、caspase-1, 降低海馬中的 IL-1β,發揮顯著抗發炎效果。

帕金森氏症(PD)中,細胞內外 α-synuclein 早期聚集會觸發發炎,促使膠質細胞 釋放大量 NO 與過氧化物,傷害紋狀體與黑質的多巴胺神經元。電針 中脘(CV12)、陰交(RN7)、足三里(ST36)、太衝(LR3) 可抑制 SN 與 ST 膠質細胞活化,下調 TNF-α、IL-1β、COX-2,挽救瀕臨凋亡的多巴胺神經元, 改善運動與空間記憶功能,並緩解焦慮、憂鬱等非運動症狀。

血管性失智(VD)中,針刺 足三里、百會 可下調 TXNIP,阻止其與 NLRP3 結合,減少 IL-1 與 ROS,改善認知障礙與 腦水腫。

PTZ 誘發癲癇模型中,針刺 百會(GV20) 可降低 ROS 產生, 提升 SOD、CAT 活性,抑制 TNF-α,減少神經元異常放電與發作 程度。

六、氧化壓力、NMDAR、TRPV1 與腦內 microRNA

腦內氧化壓力(ROS/RNS 產生與清除不平衡)是神經發炎的重要推手。

創傷性腦損傷模型中,針刺 啞門(GV15)、風府(GV16)、百會 (GV20)、水溝(GV26)、合谷(LI4) 可增強腦內抗氧化防禦,降低 M1 微膠細胞表現, 抑制 RhoA/ROCK2TNF-α、IL-1β、IL-6,減少病灶周邊腦組織 DNA 損傷,改善神經功能。

當谷氨酸興奮毒性增加、NMDAR 過度活化、能量供應不足時,也會導致神經細胞死亡。 電針 印堂(GV29)、百會(GV20) 可降低血清與海馬中的 IL-1β、IL-6、TNF-α,調整 NMDAR 亞型表現平衡,發揮抗憂鬱與神經保護作用。

缺血性腦中風模型中,電針預處理 百會(GV20)、腎俞(BL23)、 三陰交(SP6) 可顯著抑制 TRPV1 蛋白表現,降低 MDA、TNF-α、IL-1β,並上調 GSH、SOD,展現強力神經保護效果。

腦出血模型中,針刺 百會(GV20)、曲鬢(GB7) 可降低腦組織 中 miR-23a-3p,進一步抑制 IL-6、IL-1β、TNF-α、ROS、MDA、GPX4, 減少神經元死亡、發炎與鐵死亡(ferroptosis)。

七、內生大麻素系統與 CB1 受體:偏頭痛中的針灸機制

內生大麻素系統由內生大麻素與 CB1/CB2 受體組成,負責調節 身體面對疼痛與發炎刺激時的反應,其中 CB1 受體(CB1R) 具有抗損傷、抗過敏與 抗發炎作用。

在三叉神經電刺激誘發的偏頭痛模型中,電針預處理 風池(GB20)、外關(TE5) 可上調 CB1R 表現,並下調 IL-1β、COX-2、PGE2、CGRP,減少硬腦膜血漿蛋白外滲,緩解無菌性神經源性 發炎與偏頭痛。

八、小結:膠質細胞、微膠細胞與針灸的神經保護

綜合上述研究,針灸在中枢神經的抗發炎與神經保護作用,可概括如下:

  • 促進 M1 微膠細胞向 M2 型 轉化,減少促發炎回路。
  • 抑制 TLR4/MyD88、NF-κB、MAPK、NLRP3、RIPK1/RIPK3、P2X/P2Y、Mincle/Syk 等促發炎訊號。
  • 降低 TXNIP–NLRP3 相關氧化壓力,減少 ROS/RNS 與 MDA 累積。
  • 調控多種與微膠細胞發炎相關的 microRNA
  • 活化內生大麻素系統(特別是 CB1R),減少組織損傷與痛覺過敏。

穴位多取自手足陽明經任督二脈,常用核心穴位包括 足三里(ST36)、合谷(LI4)、曲池(LI11)、百會(GV20) 等。多數動物研究 顯示,多穴位聯合刺激 明顯優於單一穴位。例如在偏頭痛大鼠模型中, 風池+陽陵泉(GB20+GB34) 對血清神經發炎因子的調節,優於單刺風池。


參考文獻
Anti-inflammatory and immunoregulatory effects of acupuncture(針灸的抗發炎與免疫調節作用)。
可於此處取得全文: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8710088/

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